Chapter 3 An Empire Across Three Continents

The Early Empire

The Roman Empire, spanning Europe, North Africa, and the Middle East, was a vast entity shaped by political forces and diverse social structures. It embraced a multitude of local cultures and languages. Interestingly, Roman women held stronger legal rights compared to many modern societies, while a significant portion of the economy relied on slave labor, limiting the freedom of many individuals. From the fifth century onwards, the empire fragmented in the west but maintained its integrity and prosperity in the east, influencing subsequent caliphates.

Roman historians utilized a rich array of sources, broadly categorized into texts (histories, letters, laws), documents (inscriptions on stone, papyri), and material remains (buildings, pottery, coins, mosaics). Inscriptions, often in Greek and Latin, are numerous due to their stone medium. Papyri, made from Egyptian reeds, document everyday life through contracts, accounts, and official documents. Material remains, discovered primarily by archaeologists, offer insights into structures, artifacts, and landscapes. Combining these sources, though dependent on the historian's skill, provides a comprehensive understanding of the past.

The Roman Empire and its rival, Iran, dominated much of the known world between the birth of Christ and the 7th century CE. Their empires bordered each other, separated by the Euphrates River. Rome controlled the Mediterranean Sea and surrounding regions, with its northern boundaries defined by the Rhine and Danube rivers, and the southern boundary by the Sahara Desert. The Roman Empire was culturally more diverse than Iran, which was largely populated by Iranians. Rome's administration utilized Latin and Greek, with the upper classes in the east speaking Greek and those in the west speaking Latin. All inhabitants were subjects of a single ruler, the emperor, regardless of their origin or language.

The Principate

Established by Augustus in 27 BCE, the Principate was the governing regime of the Roman Empire. While Augustus was the sole ruler, the system maintained the facade of him being the 'leading citizen' (Princeps), a nod to the earlier Republic and the Senate. This respect for the Senate, representing the Roman aristocracy and landowners, was crucial. Emperors were often judged by their relationship with the senatorial class, with hostility and brutality being characteristics of the worst rulers. Many senators desired a return to the Republic, but recognized the impossibility of this.

The Senate

The Senate was a long-standing institution in Rome, primarily composed of wealthy aristocratic families. It represented the nobility and held significant influence during the Republic. Even under the Principate, the Senate remained a key body, and emperors' actions were often evaluated based on their interactions with senators. The senatorial class, largely landowners, continued to dominate the Senate, although provincial elites gradually gained more power.

The Army

The army was another crucial pillar of imperial rule. Unlike the conscripted armies of its rivals, Rome maintained a paid professional army with a minimum service of 25 years. This paid army was a distinctive feature, numbering around 600,000 by the fourth century. The army's power was immense, capable of influencing the fate of emperors, and soldiers often agitated for better pay and conditions, sometimes leading to mutinies. Historians with senatorial sympathies often portrayed the army negatively, as a source of unpredictable violence, particularly during the third century when increased military expenditures led to higher taxation.

Succession To The Throne

Succession to the imperial throne was generally based on family descent, whether natural or adoptive. Even the army adhered to this principle. For instance, Emperor Tiberius was adopted by Augustus to ensure a smooth transition of power, demonstrating the importance of dynastic continuity.

External Warfare

In the first two centuries of the empire, external warfare was less common. The empire, already vast, was perceived as needing no further expansion. The "Augustan age" is remembered for establishing peace after periods of internal strife and military conquest. Trajan's campaign across the Euphrates (113-17 CE) was an exception but was later abandoned by his successors. More characteristic was the gradual absorption of 'dependent' kingdoms into Roman provincial territory, expanding Roman direct rule.

Provincial Elites

Throughout the second and third centuries, power shifted from Italy to the provinces. Provincial upper classes increasingly supplied administrators and military commanders who gained more influence than the senatorial class due to imperial backing. Emperor Gallienus (253-68 CE) solidified this shift by excluding senators from military command, preventing them from consolidating power.

Urbanisation

The vast Roman Empire, with a population of around 60 million in the mid-second century, was managed through its urban centers. Major cities like Carthage, Alexandria, and Antioch along the Mediterranean served as the backbone of the imperial system. These cities facilitated the taxation of rural areas, which generated much of the empire's wealth. Local upper classes collaborated with the Roman state in administration and tax collection, playing a crucial role in governing the provinces and commanding armies.

Roman Cities

A Roman city was an urban center with its own magistrates, city council, and jurisdiction over surrounding villages. Cities often received preferential treatment during food shortages. Urban life was characterized by public baths, which were a significant feature, and a high level of entertainment, with numerous days dedicated to spectacles. The urban infrastructure, including aqueducts built by Roman engineers to transport water, further highlights the sophistication of Roman urban planning.

The Third-Century Crisis

The third century marked a period of significant internal strain for the Roman Empire, contrasting with the relative peace and prosperity of the first two centuries. From the 230s onwards, the empire faced simultaneous challenges on multiple fronts. A new, aggressive Sasanian dynasty emerged in Iran, rapidly expanding towards the Euphrates and claiming significant victories over Roman armies, including the capture of Antioch. Concurrently, various Germanic tribes, such as the Alamanni, Franks, and Goths, began encroaching upon the Rhine and Danube frontiers, leading to repeated invasions of Roman provinces. This period saw a rapid succession of emperors (25 emperors in 47 years), indicative of the immense pressures the empire faced.

Iranian Rivalry

The emergence of the Sasanian dynasty in Iran in 225 CE posed a significant challenge to the Roman Empire. The Sasanians, described as more aggressive, expanded rapidly and claimed substantial military victories, including the defeat and capture of Roman forces and the eastern capital of Antioch. This intensified rivalry marked a key feature of the third-century crisis.

Germanic Invasions

Throughout the third century, numerous Germanic tribes, including the Alamanni, Franks, and Goths, launched invasions across the Rhine and Danube frontiers. These incursions led to the abandonment of Roman territories beyond the Danube and forced emperors to remain actively engaged in defending the empire against these incursions, contributing to the period's instability.

Gender, Literacy, Culture

Roman society was characterized by the prevalence of the nuclear family, with adult sons typically living separately from their parents. Slaves were often considered part of the family unit. By the late Republic, Roman women retained significant legal rights in property ownership and management, remaining independent of their husband's authority and inheriting from their natal families. Divorce was relatively accessible. However, an age gap between husbands and wives and societal norms often placed women under their husbands' domination, sometimes involving physical abuse, as noted by Saint Augustine. Fathers held considerable legal power over their children, including the right to expose unwanted infants.

Literacy rates varied across the empire. Pompeii, buried by volcanic eruption in 79 CE, shows evidence of widespread casual literacy through advertisements and graffiti. In Egypt, despite the survival of many papyri, formal documents were often written by professional scribes, with individuals frequently stating their inability to read or write. Nevertheless, literacy was more common among soldiers, officers, and estate managers. The empire's cultural diversity was reflected in its varied religious cults, languages, dress, food, social organization, and settlement patterns. Languages like Aramaic, Coptic, Punic, Berber, and Celtic were spoken, with some purely oral until scripts were developed. The spread of Latin led to the decline of written Celtic, while Coptic saw a written translation of the Bible.

Family Structure

The Roman family was typically nuclear, though slaves were often included. Fathers held significant legal authority, including control over their children's lives. Marriages were arranged, and wives, while legally independent in property matters, were often subject to their husbands' dominance.

Women's Rights

Roman women enjoyed considerable legal rights, particularly concerning property ownership and management. They retained their inheritance rights and were not transferred to their husband's legal authority upon marriage, maintaining financial independence. Divorce was also relatively easy to obtain.

Literacy Rates

Literacy varied across the empire. Pompeii showed evidence of widespread casual literacy through inscriptions and graffiti. In contrast, in Egypt, many formal documents were produced by professional scribes, suggesting lower literacy among the general population, though it was more common among soldiers and administrators.

Cultural Diversity

The Roman Empire was marked by immense cultural diversity, evident in its varied religious practices, languages, customs, food, social structures, and settlement patterns. This diversity was a defining characteristic of the empire.

Languages Of The Empire

Latin was the administrative language in the west, while Greek was used in the east. Other languages like Aramaic, Coptic, Punic, Berber, and Celtic were spoken in various regions, with some eventually developing written forms or being superseded by Latin.

Economic Expansion

The Roman Empire possessed a substantial economic infrastructure, including harbors, mines, quarries, brickyards, and olive oil factories. Wheat, wine, and olive oil were major traded commodities, primarily sourced from regions like Spain, Gaul, North Africa, Egypt, and parts of Italy. The widespread survival of amphorae (containers for liquids) has allowed archaeologists to reconstruct trade patterns, identifying the origin and contents of these vessels. For instance, the analysis of "Dressel 20" amphorae indicates the dominance of Spanish olive oil production between 140-160 CE, suggesting a highly competitive market where producers offered better quality at lower prices. North African producers later followed this success, with dominance shifting to the Aegean, Asia Minor, Syria, and Palestine in later centuries.

Several regions were renowned for their fertility and agricultural productivity, including Campania in Italy, Sicily, the Fayum in Egypt, Galilee, Byzacium (Tunisia), southern Gaul, and Baetica (southern Spain). These areas were densely populated and contributed significantly to the empire's wealth. Conversely, other areas, like northern Spain and Numidia, were less developed, with pastoral and semi-nomadic communities whose traditional pastures were reduced by expanding Roman estates. It is important to note that despite being an "ancient" world, Roman economic and cultural life was not necessarily primitive. Advancements in water-powered milling technology, hydraulic mining, extensive commercial and banking networks, and widespread use of money indicate a sophisticated economy.

Trade And Transport

The empire's economy was supported by extensive trade networks and efficient transportation systems, particularly riverine transport. Goods like wheat, wine, and olive oil were transported in large quantities using specialized containers called amphorae. Archaeological evidence from these containers has helped reconstruct trade routes and pinpoint production centers.

Agricultural Production

Key agricultural products like wheat, wine, and olive oil were crucial to the Roman economy and were produced in vast quantities in fertile regions across the empire, including Spain, North Africa, Egypt, and Italy. The success of producers in capturing markets often depended on the quality and price of their goods.

Regional Competition

Competition among producers from different regions was fierce. Spanish olive oil producers, for example, eventually outcompeted Italian producers by offering better quality at lower prices. This regional competition extended to other commodities, with production dominance shifting between regions over time based on their ability to organize production and transport effectively.

Sophistication Of The Roman Economy

The Roman economy was surprisingly sophisticated for its time, featuring advanced technologies like water-powered mills and hydraulic mining, extensive commercial and banking networks, and the widespread use of money. These elements challenge notions of the ancient world as necessarily backward or primitive.

Controlling Workers

Slavery was a deeply entrenched institution in the Roman world, although it did not constitute the majority of labor across the entire empire, especially in later periods. In the Republican period, slaves were numerous, but by the empire, economic considerations, rather than sympathy, influenced the use of slave labor. As the supply of slaves dwindled due to reduced warfare, slave breeding or cheaper alternatives like wage labor became more prevalent. Free labor was often used for public works, as maintaining slaves year-round was costly. Slaves and freedmen were employed as business managers, often given capital to operate businesses. Agricultural writers like Columella emphasized the need for constant supervision of both free and slave workers, recommending small work groups for easier monitoring. Some industrial establishments imposed strict controls, including sealing workers' aprons and requiring them to remove all clothes before leaving. To ensure compliance, workers were sometimes branded, and labor contracts were often structured as debt contracts, effectively creating debt bondage. This practice, along with parents selling their children into servitude, highlights the harsh realities of labor control in the Roman economy, though wage labor also became increasingly common in some areas.

Slavery In The Roman Empire

Slavery was a significant institution, particularly during the Republican period, but its prevalence varied across the empire and over time. Economic factors, rather than humanitarian concerns, governed its use, with landowners making calculations about the cost-effectiveness of slave labor compared to other forms of work.

Slave Supply

The supply of slaves tended to decline as warfare became less widespread. This led to increased reliance on slave breeding or alternative labor sources like wage labor, which was more easily dispensable.

Management Of Labour

Roman writers like Columella stressed the importance of supervision for both free and slave workers. They recommended organizing workers into small groups (gangs) to monitor performance and identify those not contributing effectively. Tools were often kept in reserve to prevent production delays due to lack of equipment.

Labour Control And Indebtedness

Strict control measures were implemented, including branding runaway workers and using debt contracts to bind employees. This practice of debt bondage meant that many free individuals entered into servitude to survive. Parents also sometimes sold their children into servitude for extended periods.

Wage Labour

Despite the prevalence of control mechanisms, wage labor became increasingly common in parts of the Roman Mediterranean, especially in the East. Emperors sometimes attracted labor for projects by offering high wages, indicating a demand for free workers.

Social Hierarchies

Roman society was stratified, with distinct social groups. In the early empire, according to Tacitus, these included senators (patres), the equestrian class, the respectable middle class, the lower classes (plebs sordida) often involved in circus and theatrical entertainment, and slaves. By the early third century, roughly half of the senators were of Italian descent. In the late empire (from the fourth century), the senatorial and equestrian classes merged into a unified aristocracy, with a significant influx of people from Africa and the East. This late Roman aristocracy was wealthy but often less powerful than military elites from non-aristocratic backgrounds. The middle class expanded to include those in imperial service (bureaucracy and army) and prosperous merchants and farmers, particularly in the East. Their status often depended on government service and patronage. Below them were the humiliores, comprising rural laborers, industrial and mining workers, migrant harvest workers, self-employed artisans, casual laborers in cities, and slaves, especially in the western empire.

The Roman aristocracy, particularly in the city of Rome, enjoyed immense wealth, with annual incomes from estates reaching up to 4,000 pounds of gold. The late empire saw a shift from a silver-based to a gold-based monetary system due to the exhaustion of Spanish silver mines. The imperial bureaucracy became relatively affluent, often investing their gold salaries in assets like land. Corruption was prevalent, particularly in the judicial system and military supply administration. However, the state actively intervened to curb corruption through laws and the denunciation of such practices by intellectuals. Roman law, emerging by the fourth century, acted as a check on imperial power, protecting civil rights and enabling figures like Bishop Ambrose to confront emperors.

Early Empire Social Groups

In the early Roman Empire, society was divided into senators, the equestrian class, the respectable middle class, the lower classes (plebs sordida), and slaves. The senatorial class, primarily landowners of Italian descent, held significant influence.

Late Empire Social Structure

By the late empire, the senatorial and equestrian classes merged into a unified aristocracy, increasingly drawn from provincial elites. A growing bureaucracy and prosperous merchants formed the middle class, while the lower classes (humiliores) included laborers, artisans, and slaves.

Aristocracy And Bureaucracy

The Roman aristocracy amassed considerable wealth, often from landholdings. The late Roman bureaucracy also formed a relatively affluent group, benefiting from gold salaries and investments. However, corruption was a notable issue within these ranks, despite state efforts to control it.

The Lower Classes (Humiliores)

The lower classes encompassed a broad spectrum of society, including rural laborers, industrial workers, migrant laborers, artisans, and casual laborers in cities. Slaves remained a significant presence, particularly in the western empire.

Late Antiquity

Late Antiquity, spanning the fourth to seventh centuries CE, refers to the final phase of the Roman Empire's evolution and eventual fragmentation. This period witnessed significant cultural and economic transformations. Emperor Constantine's decision to establish Christianity as the official religion and the rise of Islam in the seventh century were pivotal religious developments. Diocletian's reforms (284-305 CE) aimed to address overexpansion by fortifying frontiers, reorganizing provinces, and separating civilian and military functions, increasing the autonomy of military commanders. Constantine built upon these changes, introducing a new gold coinage (the solidus) and establishing a second capital at Constantinople. These reforms fostered economic growth, urban prosperity, and increased use of money. While the East experienced sustained prosperity, the West fragmented politically as Germanic tribes established post-Roman kingdoms. The reign of Justinian in the East marked a high point of imperial ambition and prosperity, though his attempts to reconquer territories left them weakened and vulnerable to further invasions. The mid-seventh century saw the dramatic expansion of Islam, fundamentally reshaping the political landscape of the region.

Diocletian's Reforms

Emperor Diocletian implemented reforms to manage the vast empire, including fortifying frontiers, reorganizing provinces, and separating civilian and military administration to grant greater autonomy to military commanders.

Constantine's Innovations

Emperor Constantine continued and expanded upon Diocletian's reforms, introducing a stable gold coinage (the solidus) and establishing a second capital at Constantinople. These measures stimulated economic growth and urban development.

Religious Transformation

Late Antiquity was a period of significant religious change, marked by Emperor Constantine's adoption of Christianity as the official religion and the subsequent spread of Christianity throughout the empire. The process of Christianization was gradual, with polytheistic beliefs persisting for some time.

The Eastern And Western Empires

While the Roman Empire remained united in the East, experiencing continued prosperity, the Western Empire fragmented politically in the later centuries, with Germanic groups establishing kingdoms in former Roman provinces. These "post-Roman" kingdoms laid the groundwork for the medieval world.

Justinian's Reign

The reign of Justinian in the Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantium) is considered a high point of imperial prosperity and ambition. His efforts to reconquer territories, such as Africa and Italy, were significant, although the campaigns left Italy devastated and open to further invasions.